==================
Database Functions
==================

.. module:: django.db.models.functions
    :synopsis: Database Functions

The classes documented below provide a way for users to use functions provided
by the underlying database as annotations, aggregations, or filters in Django.
Functions are also :doc:`expressions <expressions>`, so they can be used and
combined with other expressions like :ref:`aggregate functions
<aggregation-functions>`.

We'll be using the following model in examples of each function::

    class Author(models.Model):
        name = models.CharField(max_length=50)
        age = models.PositiveIntegerField(null=True, blank=True)
        alias = models.CharField(max_length=50, null=True, blank=True)
        goes_by = models.CharField(max_length=50, null=True, blank=True)

We don't usually recommend allowing ``null=True`` for ``CharField`` since this
allows the field to have two "empty values", but it's important for the
``Coalesce`` example below.

Coalesce
--------

.. class:: Coalesce(*expressions, **extra)

Accepts a list of at least two field names or expressions and returns the
first non-null value (note that an empty string is not considered a null
value). Each argument must be of a similar type, so mixing text and numbers
will result in a database error.

Usage examples::

    >>> # Get a screen name from least to most public
    >>> from django.db.models import Sum, Value as V
    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Coalesce
    >>> Author.objects.create(name='Margaret Smith', goes_by='Maggie')
    >>> author = Author.objects.annotate(
    ...    screen_name=Coalesce('alias', 'goes_by', 'name')).get()
    >>> print(author.screen_name)
    Maggie

    >>> # Prevent an aggregate Sum() from returning None
    >>> aggregated = Author.objects.aggregate(
    ...    combined_age=Coalesce(Sum('age'), V(0)),
    ...    combined_age_default=Sum('age'))
    >>> print(aggregated['combined_age'])
    0
    >>> print(aggregated['combined_age_default'])
    None

.. warning::

    A Python value passed to ``Coalesce`` on MySQL may be converted to an
    incorrect type unless explicitly cast to the correct database type:

    >>> from django.db.models.expressions import RawSQL
    >>> from django.utils import timezone
    >>> now = timezone.now()
    >>> now_sql = RawSQL("cast(%s as datetime)", (now,))
    >>> Coalesce('updated', now_sql)

Concat
------

.. class:: Concat(*expressions, **extra)

Accepts a list of at least two text fields or expressions and returns the
concatenated text. Each argument must be of a text or char type. If you want
to concatenate a ``TextField()`` with a ``CharField()``, then be sure to tell
Django that the ``output_field`` should be a ``TextField()``. This is also
required when concatenating a ``Value`` as in the example below.

This function will never have a null result. On backends where a null argument
results in the entire expression being null, Django will ensure that each null
part is converted to an empty string first.

Usage example::

    >>> # Get the display name as "name (goes_by)"
    >>> from django.db.models import CharField, Value as V
    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Concat
    >>> Author.objects.create(name='Margaret Smith', goes_by='Maggie')
    >>> author = Author.objects.annotate(
    ...    screen_name=Concat('name', V(' ('), 'goes_by', V(')'),
    ...    output_field=CharField())).get()
    >>> print(author.screen_name)
    Margaret Smith (Maggie)

Greatest
--------

.. class:: Greatest(*expressions, **extra)

.. versionadded:: 1.9

Accepts a list of at least two field names or expressions and returns the
greatest value. Each argument must be of a similar type, so mixing text and
numbers will result in a database error.

Usage example::

    class Blog(models.Model):
        body = models.TextField()
        modified = models.DateTimeField(auto_now=True)

    class Comment(models.Model):
        body = models.TextField()
        modified = models.DateTimeField(auto_now=True)
        blog = models.ForeignKey(Blog, on_delete=models.CASCADE)

    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Greatest
    >>> blog = Blog.objects.create(body='Greatest is the best.')
    >>> comment = Comment.objects.create(body='No, Least is better.', blog=blog)
    >>> comments = Comment.objects.annotate(last_updated=Greatest('modified', 'blog__modified'))
    >>> annotated_comment = comments.get()

``annotated_comment.last_updated`` will be the most recent of ``blog.modified``
and ``comment.modified``.

.. warning::

    The behavior of ``Greatest`` when one or more expression may be ``null``
    varies between databases:

    - PostgreSQL: ``Greatest`` will return the largest non-null expression,
      or ``null`` if all expressions are ``null``.
    - SQLite, Oracle, and MySQL: If any expression is ``null``, ``Greatest``
      will return ``null``.

    The PostgreSQL behavior can be emulated using ``Coalesce`` if you know
    a sensible minimum value to provide as a default.

Least
-----

.. class:: Least(*expressions, **extra)

.. versionadded:: 1.9

Accepts a list of at least two field names or expressions and returns the
least value. Each argument must be of a similar type, so mixing text and numbers
will result in a database error.

.. warning::

    The behavior of ``Least`` when one or more expression may be ``null``
    varies between databases:

    - PostgreSQL: ``Least`` will return the smallest non-null expression,
      or ``null`` if all expressions are ``null``.
    - SQLite, Oracle, and MySQL: If any expression is ``null``, ``Least``
      will return ``null``.

    The PostgreSQL behavior can be emulated using ``Coalesce`` if you know
    a sensible maximum value to provide as a default.

Length
------

.. class:: Length(expression, **extra)

Accepts a single text field or expression and returns the number of characters
the value has. If the expression is null, then the length will also be null.

Usage example::

    >>> # Get the length of the name and goes_by fields
    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Length
    >>> Author.objects.create(name='Margaret Smith')
    >>> author = Author.objects.annotate(
    ...    name_length=Length('name'),
    ...    goes_by_length=Length('goes_by')).get()
    >>> print(author.name_length, author.goes_by_length)
    (14, None)

It can also be registered as a transform. For example::

    >>> from django.db.models import CharField
    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Length
    >>> CharField.register_lookup(Length, 'length')
    >>> # Get authors whose name is longer than 7 characters
    >>> authors = Author.objects.filter(name__length__gt=7)

.. versionchanged:: 1.9

    The ability to register the function as a transform was added.

Lower
------

.. class:: Lower(expression, **extra)

Accepts a single text field or expression and returns the lowercase
representation.

It can also be registered as a transform as described in :class:`Length`.

Usage example::

    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Lower
    >>> Author.objects.create(name='Margaret Smith')
    >>> author = Author.objects.annotate(name_lower=Lower('name')).get()
    >>> print(author.name_lower)
    margaret smith

.. versionchanged:: 1.9

    The ability to register the function as a transform was added.

Now
---

.. class:: Now()

.. versionadded:: 1.9

Returns the database server's current date and time when the query is executed,
typically using the SQL ``CURRENT_TIMESTAMP``.

Usage example::

    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Now
    >>> Article.objects.filter(published__lte=Now())
    <QuerySet [<Article: How to Django>]>

.. admonition:: PostgreSQL considerations

    On PostgreSQL, the SQL ``CURRENT_TIMESTAMP`` returns the time that the
    current transaction started. Therefore for cross-database compatibility,
    ``Now()`` uses ``STATEMENT_TIMESTAMP`` instead. If you need the transaction
    timestamp, use :class:`django.contrib.postgres.functions.TransactionNow`.

Substr
------

.. class:: Substr(expression, pos, length=None, **extra)

Returns a substring of length ``length`` from the field or expression starting
at position ``pos``. The position is 1-indexed, so the position must be greater
than 0. If ``length`` is ``None``, then the rest of the string will be returned.

Usage example::

    >>> # Set the alias to the first 5 characters of the name as lowercase
    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Substr, Lower
    >>> Author.objects.create(name='Margaret Smith')
    >>> Author.objects.update(alias=Lower(Substr('name', 1, 5)))
    1
    >>> print(Author.objects.get(name='Margaret Smith').alias)
    marga

Upper
------

.. class:: Upper(expression, **extra)

Accepts a single text field or expression and returns the uppercase
representation.

It can also be registered as a transform as described in :class:`Length`.

Usage example::

    >>> from django.db.models.functions import Upper
    >>> Author.objects.create(name='Margaret Smith')
    >>> author = Author.objects.annotate(name_upper=Upper('name')).get()
    >>> print(author.name_upper)
    MARGARET SMITH

.. versionchanged:: 1.9

    The ability to register the function as a transform was added.
